Historical developments of radio
Transmission and reception technology
Because it's hard to define what counts as the world's first radio, it is hard to say exactly when it was invented and by who. Brief history 1860s - in the 1860s a Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell (who specialised in the field of mathematical physics) correctly predicted the existence of radio waves. In 1886 Heinrich Rudolf Hertz, a German scientist was able to prove Maxwell’s theory, by proving the existence of electromagnetic waves. He did this by proving that electric currents would be projected into space, in forms similar to heat and light. |
Guglielmo Marconi - Guglielmo Marconi was an Italian electrical engineer and inventor. He is famous and credited with being the inventor of the radio and for being the first person to send and receive radio communications on his invention in 1895 in Italy. Additionally, he is well known for his pioneering work on long-distance radio transmission, development of Marconi's law, and a radio telegraph system. In 1909, both him and Karl Ferdinand Braun won the Nobel Prize in Physics "in recognition of their contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy". - nobelprize.org.
This video created by the BBC to calibrate the 90 years of radio in the UK.
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Documentary about Guglielmo Marconi and Wireless Telegraphy
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Programming and rise of the BBC
The first commercial radio stations started to appear around the 1920s. In October 1922, the BBC (or British Broadcasting Company) was formed with a grant given to them by the British Government. On the 14 November 1922, the first radio broadcast was sent out.
By the middle of the 1920s, the BBC had regular scheduling which was able to reach the majority of the UK population. The first edition of The Radio Times, which listed programmes which were on offer, was released in September of 1923. By 1924, the BBC was established by a Royal Charter as the British Broadcasting Corporation.
The first radio station launched was 2LO. It was broadcast from a room in Marconi's house in London via a transmitter. The programme lasted 1 hour a day, and would consist of the programme director Arthur Burrows reading the news. At the time of broadcasting, only around 30,000 people held a radio licence in the UK.
Other radio stations in the 1920s included 'the daily service', 'BBC dance orchestra', 'Children's hour' and documentaries. However, by 1926 more than 2 million people had a radio licence.
Other radio stations were launched by the BBC. These tended to be based around regions or cities in the UK, as opposed to nationwide broadcasting. Although all of these stations were connected to London for ‘simultaneous broadcasts', they tended to focus on local talent.
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AM vs FM stations
This table highlights the difference between AM and FM radio.
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DAB + RDS + DRM
DAB - Digital Audio Broadcasting
RDS - Radio Data System
DRM - Digital Radio Mondiale
- This is the use of digital technology to transmit or receive across the radio spectrum.
- DAB radio was developed in the 1980s, and first came to the UK in 1995.
- It has since grown in popularity with approximately 35% of live radio listening now using DAB.
- DAB radio does not have the crackling problem that AM/FM stations have, however if the signal is weak it can still regularly cut out.
RDS - Radio Data System
- It is standard protocol for embedding small amounts of digital information in the standard FM radio broadcasts.
- This extra information can be picked up using FM radios with RDS-equipped tuners.
- It works by using a ‘subcarrier’ of 57 kHz.
- The information transmitted includes;
- Station Identification
- Time
- Programming information
DRM - Digital Radio Mondiale
- Set of digital audio broadcasting technologies designed to work over the bands currently used for analogue radio broadcasting including AM broadcasting
- Digital audio broadcasting technologies, designed to work over the bands currently used for analogue radio (AM + FM) broadcasting including AM broadcasting.
- It was designed as a high quality and cheap replacement for the more traditional analog broadcasting.
Monopolies
Within the UK, radio was dominated by the BBC. Because of the monopoly that the BBC had on radio, they were also the ones regulating what content was broadcast to the public.
The British government only gave a licence for radio broadcasting at the BBC. Other radio stations which wanted to broadcast had to do so without a licence, which was illegal. Stations which were unlicensed were named pirate radio.
2LO radio station
Within the UK, radio was dominated by the BBC. Because of the monopoly that the BBC had on radio, they were also the ones regulating what content was broadcast to the public.
The British government only gave a licence for radio broadcasting at the BBC. Other radio stations which wanted to broadcast had to do so without a licence, which was illegal. Stations which were unlicensed were named pirate radio.
2LO radio station
- 11th May 1922, 2LO (the world's first radio station was launched).
- It was broadcast from a room in Marconi's house in London via a transmitter.
- The program lasted 1 hour a day, and would consist of the program director Arthur Burrows reading the news.
- At the time of broadcasting, only around 30,000 people held a radio licence in the UK.
- By 1926 more than 2 million people had a radio licence.
Pirate radio
Pirate radio
“Pirate radio or a pirate radio station is a radio station that broadcasts without a valid licence.” - Wikipedia. Pirate radio first started popping up in the UK around the 1960s. The demand for the pirate radios was created by the BBC having a monopoly on British airwaves. The public (especially the youth) wanted to listen to pop and rock music with bands, however the BBC were not broadcasting this rock'n'roll music. These radio stations were not legally allowed to broadcast within the UK. To get around this, they broadcast from ships moored or located in international waters just off the coast of Britain. Although it's debated, it's believed that the first pirate radio station was Radio Atlanta (formally named Mi Amigo) which started broadcasting from offshore Sweden. |
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Radio Caroline - Case Study
However, one of the most famous radio stations was Radio Caroline, founded and owned by Ronan O'Rahilly and founded in 1964. The radio station was set up on a ship, to avoid the BBC's broadcasting monopoly and avoid being illegal. For most of the radio station's early life, it was never actually illegal, jus unlicenced. However, after the Marine Offences Act (1967), it became illegal for a British subject to listen or associate with it. Radio Caroline was broadcast across the UK using five different ships, from 1964 to 1990. Since 19th August 2000, the station has broadcast 24 hours a day via internet radio. In January of 2016 a second channel was launched called Caroline Flashback, which primarily plays pop and rock music from the late 1950s to the early 1980s. |
The Boat That Rocked
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Regulation
Within the UK, all commercial radio stations are regulated by OFCOM. OFCOM, or the Office of Communications, is the government-approved regulatory authority that is responsible for regulating telecommunications, TV and radio. OFCOM have published a broadcast code which all content broadcast in the UK must follow. For example, in the broadcasting code, it states that all content which is inappropriate for children must be broadcast after 9:00pm. This is more commonly known as the 9 o'clock watershed within the UK. If the broadcaster does not comply with the rules of the code, then they risk getting fined or having their licence revoked. For example, in 2010, OFCOM revoked the licences of 4 free-to-air TV channels for promoting adult chat services during daytime hours. The companies involved were fined £157,250. However, OFCOM does have limitations. One of these is the fact that OFCOM cannot regulate content which is broadcast in the UK if it is licensed abroad. |
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Content issues
If radio shows, producers or hosts do something which breaks the Broadcasting Code, which is set out by OFCOM, the issue will be investigated. OFCOM will decide if action needs to be taken or not. This normally results with a fine or, in extreme cases, the radio station having their licence revoked or suspended. Case Study - Russell Brand / Jonathan Ross “prank call” – BBC Radio 2 (2008) On the 18 October 2008, radio presenter Jonathan Ross and comedian Russell Brand made a prank call to Fawlty Towers actor Andrew Sachs. The idea of the prank call was to interview him, claiming he was meant to be on their show. When Sachs did not answer, the pair of hosts decided to leave rude messages on his answering phone. |
Examples of this include when Ross interrupted Brand shouting "he fucked your granddaughter", and also included Brand singing to Sachs: "It was consensual and she wasn't menstrual" and Ross asking to marry him.
Although figures vary, around 42,000 complaints were sent into OFCOM in the aftermath of the call. OFCOM responded by fining the BBC a total of £150,000 (making it one of the largest OFCOM fines ever in the history of the UK). The BBC also responded by suspending Jonathon Ross without pay for 12 weeks. Russell Brand also resigned from the BBC. The event also caused the controller of Radio 2 Lesley Douglas to hand in her resignation.
Ofcom response report
Although figures vary, around 42,000 complaints were sent into OFCOM in the aftermath of the call. OFCOM responded by fining the BBC a total of £150,000 (making it one of the largest OFCOM fines ever in the history of the UK). The BBC also responded by suspending Jonathon Ross without pay for 12 weeks. Russell Brand also resigned from the BBC. The event also caused the controller of Radio 2 Lesley Douglas to hand in her resignation.
Ofcom response report
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Ownership
Within the UK, many of the more popular commercial radio stations are owned by the conglomerate Global Radio. Due to the Broadcasting Act of 1990, they have been allowed to buy out or merge with many smaller independent stations across the UK.
Within the UK, many of the more popular commercial radio stations are owned by the conglomerate Global Radio. Due to the Broadcasting Act of 1990, they have been allowed to buy out or merge with many smaller independent stations across the UK.
Some of the larger stations which are owned by Global Radio include:
BBC radio stations
All of the BBC radio stations are owned by the BBC. They are funded by the government grant as well as the TV licence. Because of this, they don't run adverts, unlike the majority of commercial radio stations.
The BBC runs 11 national stations, in addition to regional stations, such as such as BBC Radio Cymru which is a Welsh speaking radio network. Additionally, they also run a global radio station, which is free to listen to anywhere in the world, called BBC World Service. The BBC World Service is the world's largest international broadcaster and broadcasts in 27 different languages.
- Capital - (a network made up of 11 smaller regional stations)
- Heart - (a network made up of 12 smaller regional stations)
- Classic FM
- Smooth FM
- LBC
- Gold
- Juice FM
BBC radio stations
All of the BBC radio stations are owned by the BBC. They are funded by the government grant as well as the TV licence. Because of this, they don't run adverts, unlike the majority of commercial radio stations.
The BBC runs 11 national stations, in addition to regional stations, such as such as BBC Radio Cymru which is a Welsh speaking radio network. Additionally, they also run a global radio station, which is free to listen to anywhere in the world, called BBC World Service. The BBC World Service is the world's largest international broadcaster and broadcasts in 27 different languages.
Employment
Within the radio industry, there are many different job roles available.
Radio presenter
Within the radio industry, there are many different job roles available.
Radio presenter
- this is the person who is the main voice of the radio station or programme. Often a radio station will have different presenters on at different times to do different shows.
- The specifics of the presenter's job will vary depending on what type of show or station they are working on. For example, doing live interviews, pre-recorded shows or just playing back-to-back music.
- Most radio presenters are self employed or on fixed term contracts.
- This is the person who oversees, and is in charge of, everything that is going on at the station.
- This involves a diverse range of jobs, for example, hiring new staff or training up pre-existing staff; delegating tasks and working out who is responsible for what; planning schedules for programmes, meetings etc…
Radio producer
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Maintenance engineer
- Within a radio station, there is a lot of different technology being used. It's the job of the maintenance engineer to run routine checks and maintenance on the equipment, including installing any software or trouble-shooting when there is an issue. For example, if the radio station is receiving complaints about interference, it's the job of the engineer to figure out what is causing it and fix it.
- Also known as broadcasting engineer.
- The chief engineer makes sure that the station has all the correct equipment that it needs to be able to broadcast. It also involves regularly checking that the equipment is working and performing any maintenance that is needed.
- Due to the more technical skills needed, the chief engineer can sometimes have special training or certifications.
Radio frequencies and bandwidth
Codes and conventions of different radio genre
Within the world of radio, there are many different types of radio show.
Late night
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Chat shows
- This is a classic type of programme, in which two or more radio hosts chat about a topic. The topic of conversation could vary widely, following more traditional and well known topics such as music billboard charts. Alternatively, the hosts could make up their own topic of conversation.
- These are informative shows, which inform the audience about specific areas, such as the news or weather.
- As the name suggests, these shows are focused around music. For example, the show may consist of one or two hours of back-to-back music. This music may be genre specific such as rock, hip-hop or dance. The show could also be themed, such as movie soundtracks or based on a country (for example, Spanish music) or a decade (eg 60s or 70s).
- This is a show which relies on dialogue, music and sound effects to tell a story. Common programmes are dramas, stories, musicals, comedies etc…
- Today many of these are commonly created as, and listened to, as podcasts.
- These are programmes dedicated to covering the latest in a certain sport, for example, football or cricket. They deliver related news about that sport - for example, the results of games, athlete's news etc…
- They can also have live coverage of games or events.
Codes of radio
Intro
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Sound effects (SFX)
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Atmos
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Types of radio journalism
Narrative journalism
Immersion journalism
Gonzo journalism
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Types of radio interviews
Interview - this a meeting where a person or group of people are asked questions by a journalist. This is to gather opinions, information or facts from the interviewee.
Interview - this a meeting where a person or group of people are asked questions by a journalist. This is to gather opinions, information or facts from the interviewee.
Type of interview questions
It's important to use different type of interview questions when conducting an interview. This is so you can get a wide range of answers, but still keep the interview on track.
Open ended questions
It's important to use different type of interview questions when conducting an interview. This is so you can get a wide range of answers, but still keep the interview on track.
Open ended questions
- Open ended questions - this allows the interviewee a lot of different options for answering, as the questions are often vague.
- Putting both parties at ease, as both can speak more freely.
- Answers can have a lot of detail in them. However, sometimes this detail is irrelevant and can confuse matters.
- The interviewee has more freedom to use there own vocabulary, attitudes, beliefs, values etc… (a more personal response).
- However, the interviewer risks losing track of the interview or not receiving the correct/useful information. Alternatively, the interview can take too long .
Closed questions
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Prompts
- This is the follow up question. They allow the interviewer to get more details on a particular question.
- Additionally, they can be used to expand upon a point or clarify what the interviewee said.
- For example, asking why the interviewee did something, or asking how they felt about it afterwards.
- Continuity announcing - “In broadcasting, 'continuity' is announcements, messages and graphics played by the broadcaster (radio station) between specific programmes”. - wikipedia
- They typically include -
- Programme schedules
- Announcements of the next programme
- Trailers or descriptions or other programmes
- Radio station jingles.
- Due to the increase of most stations just playing music, fewer and fewer stations are still using continuity announcers.
Types of radio drama
Ongoing plays
Ongoing plays
- This is an ongoing series of radio shows.
- A series is set of programmes or broadcasts with a particular kind of title. They follow on from one another and commonly come in chronological order.
- These are single or one-off plays. They are most commonly aired on BBC Radio 4, which is the main talking and drama show in the UK.
Multi strand narratives
Cliff hangers
Voiceover
- Cliff hanger - this is a major last event at the end of a chapter, film or episode.
- It leaves the audience/listener in suspense and eager to know what happens next.
- This is a commonly used way of engaging the audience, helping to ensure that they tune in to the next episode.
- Examples include having a big reveal, or a secret leaked but not knowing who the secret is about.
Voiceover
- Voiceover - is an off-camera or off-stage commentary. It's a production technique where a voice that is not part of the narrative is used in radio or other forms of media.
- Voiceovers are commonly read from a script.
- Sometimes it's the intentional voice of another character in the radio drama, however it can also be the main character's internal thoughts.
- Alternatively it could be an outside voice, often voiced by a separate voice actor or outside narrator.
Real time
Fictional time
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Alternative narrative structure
Non-linear
Parallel plot lines
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Impressionistic
Non-narrative
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Audience theories
Stuart Hall’s Reception Theory
There are three ways that we interpret and respond to a piece of media -
There are three ways that we interpret and respond to a piece of media -
- Dominant (or preferred) reading
- The audience fully accepts the preferred reading, thus reading the radio production the way the producer intended, making the code natural and transparent.
- For example, they correctly decode the radio programme or show and enjoy it, therefore becoming fans who tune in regularly.
- Negotiated reading
- The audience partly believes the code and broadly accepts the preferred reading, but they will interpret them in a way which reflects their own position, experiences and interests.
- For example, the audience partially agree with the piece of media. They are fans of the radio production, however they are not what you would call die hard fans.
- Opposition reading
- The listener's social position is placed in an oppositional relation to the dominant code, thus they reject the reading.
- For example, they are not fans of the radio station or programme and therefore do not regularly (or at all) tune in.
Hypodermic needle theory
- This is the theory that believes that the mass media injects thoughts and theories into the general audience, which changes their outlook. It suggests that the media is very powerful and in control.
- In this theory it assumes that the audience is passive.
- You don't necessarily say anything about the product, however you show the lifestyle that it offers. Therefore by listening to that radio production, you are therefore cool by association.
- Today this model is criticised widely. The main criticism is that the audience is sitting there passively being influenced by the media which they are listening to.
Audience profiling
Definition - an audience profile is a way for companies to determine their ideal target market of consumers. It looks at the demographic and psychographic profile of their target group.
Psychographic group
Demographic group
Definition - an audience profile is a way for companies to determine their ideal target market of consumers. It looks at the demographic and psychographic profile of their target group.
Psychographic group
- Divides the market into groups based on social class, lifestyle and personality characteristics.
- It is based on the assumption that the types of products and brands an individual purchases will reflect that person's characteristics and patterns of living.
Demographic group
- Measurable characteristics of media consumers such as age, gender, race, education and income level.
- The different groups are broken into bands, depending on their jobs and lifestyle etc…
Ideology and representation
Ideology
Objectivity
- The definition of ideology is “Ideology is a set of shared beliefs within a group, such as a nation or social class. This body of beliefs influence the way individuals think, act, and view the world.” - yourdictionary
- Like many other forms of media, such as TV, films and newspapers, the radio can be used to help form, share or broadcast a certain set of beliefs or an ideology.
Objectivity
- Objectivity is important to honest journalism.
- In media journalism, the aim is to help the audience or listener make up their own mind about a current issue, story or event.
- This is done by just providing the facts (without holding bias or interpretation)and letting the audience receive them in their own way.
Impartiality
- Impartiality means to treat everybody fairly. For example, this may mean not taking sides, or holding a bias or prejudice either for or against somebody or something when reporting a news story.
- Within the media and radio this is very important.
- Example, the BBC -
- “The BBC’s Charter and Agreement requires BBC journalism to be impartial. The way the BBC does this differentiates it from other news sources and is part of the contract with audiences. BBC editors talk about viewing a story from all angles.” - BBC Academy.
- Link to video- https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/en/articles/art20130702112133788
Censorship and self-censorship
- For all broadcast media in the UK, Ofcom is responsible for regulating all content.
- Ofcom now uses its powers set for it by the Communications Act 2003. The
- British government require that all broadcast media (eg - radio, TV, films etc... ) follow the Ofcom code created, of generally accepted standards of taste and decency.
Communications Act 2003.
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Representation
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